The Ukiyo-e Wood Block Print during the Edo Period Essay Example for Free

The Ukiyo-e Wood Block Print during the Edo Period Essay Mention Moronobu, and to the mind’s eye appears a procession of vigorous, picturesque figures, all the motley citizenry of old Edo (Tokyo); the magic name of Harunobu evokes slender, ethereal girls, as lovely and fragile as the first frost of winter; Utamaro, Hokusai, Hiroshige – each name stands for a unique and arresting kind of beauty, whether of voluptuous femininity, masculine strength, or scenic grandeur. These men, and several dozen more, represent the ultimate glory of ukiyo-e. The ukiyo-e masters mark a fitting conclusion to the long and glowing tradition of classical Japanese art. Like the era which nurtured it (the Edo Period from 1600 to 1868), ukiyo-e represents a unique development in Japan, the growth of a great renaissance based upon a largely popular foundation, whereas the earlier high points of Japanese civilization had been forged largely by the aristocracy or the priesthood. That such popularization did not result in vulgarization is one of the wonders of the world of art. This was the consequence, in part, of the innate sense of restrained form and color harmony of the Japanese populace as a whole. At the same time the determined efforts of an enlightened group of artists, artisans, publishers, connoisseurs, and patrons ensured that ukiyo-e standards would always remain several degrees above the level the populace considered acceptable. Politically and socially this was a feudal, almost totalitarian age; the masses accepted the voice of authority in most of their social activities. In their arts, too, they were willing to follow the lead of a loosely bound group of style dictators, much as women have sometimes followed Paris fashions in our own day. The result was two centuries of ukiyo-e woodblock prints, a continuous flow of high quality which was both the reflection and the arbiter of popular taste. And while one may give most of the credit for this phenomenon to the masters who directly produced ukiyo-e, one should not underestimate the power of the populace which supported it. What was even more critical than their taste was the inner need they felt for possessing fine art of their own. What makes the phenomenon of ukiyo-e even more curious is the fact that the Japanese populace was primarily obeying aesthetic instincts, rather than consciously anticipating the unique art form is was to support for such a long period. In general, this paper discusses the development of ukiyo-e during the Edo Period. It starts by describing the city – its city layout, population, warrior culture, and court culture – a major subject of ukiyo-e at that time. This is followed by the origins of this art form, themes and motifs, and techniques. The final part of this paper explains why such wood block prints became so popular in the Edo Period. The City of Edo The great majority of ukiyo-e were produced and marketed in the city of Edo. These prints were bought for the purchasers own enjoyment or to be taken back to the provinces as souvenirs for friends and family. Mass production of ukiyo-e first took place in Edo during the Kyoho period (1716-1736). Ukiyo-e emerged from a social milieu that centered on publishers and groups of cultured individuals who lived in the shitamachi area, particularly around Nihonbashi. From the middle of the eighteenth century, a time when Edo was becoming the cultural center of Japan, this area functioned as the hub of cultural activity not just of Edo but of all Japan. When Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542-1616) came to Edo in 1590, he inherited little more than the vestiges of a castle built long before by Ota Dokan (1432-1486). With the implementation of Tokugawa political rule, this sleepy, historic area was destined to become the capital of all Japan. By the start of the eighteenth century, roughly one century after the establishment of the Tokugawa bakufu, the city of Edo already boasted a population of around one million inhabitants. The appearance of a city of such size was an event unprecedented in Japanese history (Matsunosuke, 1997). In the 1660’s the location of daimyo residences in Edo was in fact a miniature version of the position of the various daimyo within the country as a whole. By such means, the bakufu shrewdly stationed the forces of the tozama and fudai daimyo houses in ways that worked to its advantage. The bakufu governed the daimyo with an iron hand. Until the time of the fifth shogun, the bakufu frequently ordered fief transfers or confiscations (Tamotsu, 1961). As a result, daimyo residences were often moved within the city. Incessant changes in city planning also required construction of new wards or forcible relocation of old ones, giving the number of residences the bakufu bequeathed to its vassals, calculated at five-year intervals. Many characteristics of the city of Edo were the result of demographic factors (Matsunosuke, 1997). Building the metropolis had required a tremendous number of individuals with traditional skills and knowledge: house builders, plasterers, tatami makers, carpenters, tailors, armorers, surveyors, draftsmen, scholars, and legislators. Anyone with an outstanding ability sought his fortune in Edo. Competition was fierce, and fighting instincts surged to the fore. The majority of the Edo population was male. Male apprentices and clerks staffed the Edo branches of provincial stores. Most of these men returned to their home area after finishing their stint in Edo. Male laborers were required by daimyo for constructing Edo branches of local shrines and family temples. Samurai stationed in Edo were of course also exclusively male. In addition, Edo boasted a huge population of priests. Masterless samurai (ronin) and the self-styled street knights known as kyokaku contributed greatly to conflicts in the city. With the end of civil wars and with the peasantry under tight administrative control, ronin could no longer ramble freely about the villages. They too began to search for new forms of employment. A few members of this vast population went abroad; but many more slipped into Edo to become merchants, craftsmen, flute-playing monks (komuso), or kyokaku. The warrior population contributed much to the uniqueness of Edo. A large number of bannermen (hatamoto) – direct vassals and guardsmen of the bakufulived in the environs of the castle. A system of alternate attendance (sankin kotai) required daimyo and their retainers to spend alternate years in the capital and at their domains. Daimyo wives and children resided permanently in the capital. Thus at any given time, a large part of the military force of the nation was stationed in Edo. No matter how distant a daimyos domain lay from Edo, he took part in regular grand processions between his home area and the capital. The concentration of warriors in the city stimulated the emergence of a unique Edo economy. The presence of a large stratum of newly enfranchised warrior nobles required the procurement of a tremendous quantity of consumer goods (Matsunosuke, 1997). Supplying such goods was the responsibility of official merchants and artisans who streamed to the capital from all parts of the country. Edo thus became a consumer capital. Forced to live in the city, the daimyo, along with their retainers and families, enthusiastically set about developing their own culture. Both the ancient Kyoto court traditions and the warrior culture of the Kamakura bakufu (1185-1333) developed rapidly among the aristocratic warrior stratum. The habits and lifestyle of the daimyo and the high-ranking officialstheir food, housing, and clothing, their furnishings and utensils, even their styles of seating and deportmentwere in fact all warrior-style variations of the ancient customs, practices, and etiquette of the Kyoto court. Principles of warrior rule governed the rank or status of individuals and families in the feudal hierarchy. Rules were drawn up stipulating the forms a daimyo was required to follow. Social rank determined the shape and size of a daimyos Edo residence, the scale of his processions, and the kind of vehicles, furnishings, and clothing he was allowed to use. Distinctions of feudal rank were displayed to be immediately visible. These included the colors and designs of clothing, styles of architecture and materials used in buildings and gardens, and the methods and ingredients employed in manufacturing various goods consumed by the warrior. Even the borders of straw floor mats (tatami) in Edo castle varied according to the rank of the officials who sat on them. For this reason feudal culture – at its most typical, Edo warrior culture – Is often said to be a predominantly visual culture (Matsunosuke, 1997). Since attempts to strengthen ones military prowess was sure to evoke displeasure from the bakufu, many warriors instead built huge gardens or absorbed themselves in leisure pursuits. Within three or four generations, both the daimyo and the shogun were no longer country bumpkins: they had become a true upper-class nobility in both name and deed. Vestiges of gardens as they existed at Edo daimyo residences can still be found in Tokyo today. Examples include the Korakuen of the Mito house, the Hama Rikyfi of the Kofu Tokugawa, and the Rikugien at the Komagome villa of the daimyo Yanagisawa Yoshi- yasu. These parks, as well as maps of ponds and gardens at residences of the Togoshi Hosokawa, show that construction took place on a grand scale. Residents of such estates could enjoy leisurely strolls within the grounds or ride in pleasure boats on the large ponds. At such villas the Edo warrior nobility sought to revive the cultural life of Heian-period courtiers, who valued natural beauty and lived in natural surroundings. Origins of Ukiyo-e It is rare indeed for a single word to express within itself the changing concepts of an age. â€Å"Ukiyo† is such a word: in medieval Japan it appeared as a Buddhist expression which connoted first â€Å"this world of pain†, with the derived sense of â€Å"this transient, unreliable world† (Lane, 1962). Etymologically it thus meant â€Å"this fleeting, floating world†. However, for the newly liberated townsman of the seventeenth-century Japanese renaissance, â€Å"floating world† tended to lose its connotations of the transitory world of illusion, to take on hedonistic implications and denote the newly evolved, stylish world of pleasure – the world of easy women and gay actors and all the pleasures of the flesh (Lane, 1962). By the time the suffix -e (meaning â€Å"pictures†) had been added to form the new compound ukiyo-e (â€Å"floating-world pictures†) around the year 1680, this hedonistic significance had become predominant in the expression. Thus the subject of our book, ukiyo-e, meant something like the following to the Japanese of the age which engendered it: A new style of pictures, very much in vogue, devoted to depicting everyday life, particularly fair women and handsome men indulging in pleasure, or part of the world of pleasure -pictures, as often as not, of an erotic nature. But what brought about this new development in Japanese art, this revolutionary shift from the overworked themes of classical tradition to those of the workaday world? To understand the origin of the ukiyo-e, it is necessary to look far back into the past. The disruption of the period of the northern and southern courts in the fourteenth century followed by the Chinese renaissance in the fifteenth had meant a real break with ancient traditions. A reaction to the intervening Chinese school could not begin to set in until late in the Muromachi period. In addition, the unsettling wars of the period created a mood in which new ideas could arise, and in which the populace seems to have been less restrained socially than during the rigid Tokugawa regime. Art reflected its environment in the gradual emergence of genre paintings. While the new style did not strictly follow the narrative attitude of the Yamato-e scroll tradition, it was also far removed from the ethical approach of the Kano masters towards figure subjects (Paine and Soper, 1955). The style originated in the old capital of Kyoto, and among the works of the Kano artists who lived there are to be found some which depict and emphasize the contemporary scene in preference to an ennobling idealism. The new spirit was stimulated by Hideyoshis talent for spectacular display. This lowly but heroic figure liked to impress people. The great fete or tea-party at the shrine of Kitano in 1587 introduced a novel kind of popular entertainment. For the occasion Hideyoshi had placards set up in Kyoto, Nara, Osaka, and Sakai inviting all to come irrespective of class or wealth. At the tea-party Hideyoshis treasures were ostentatiously exhibited. The next year he gave a great flower viewing party at the temple of Daigoji (Paine and Soper, 1955). The popular art of the period deals with masses of people, as though these joyful occasions had also impressed the artists. The following section describes ukiyo-e themes and motifs, which explains why the art was popular during the Edo Period. Ukiyo-e Woodblock Technique Ukiyo-e prints were produced as a result of the collaboration of the artist, the publisher, the master carver, and the printer’s shop. However, it was the artist who received credit for the piece in the end. First, publishers would start the procedure by engaging artists to design a print or sequence of prints. The artists may have a background on traditional styles of painting or they may have learned from style of other ukiyo-e masters while having training in the workshop (Fauntleroy, 1989). Many ukiyo-e artists were commissioned to produce novel compositions to embellish interiors of households or design customized surimono (greeting cards) for clients who could afford the lavishness of unique works of art. Once the artists had prepared hanshita-e (drawing), the precise size of the print for publishing, they would trace the outlines of hanshita-e on a piece of thin paper using black ink. The traced version would be relayed to master woodcutters, who would then translate the artist’s brushed composition into a board of wood using scrapers, chisels, and knives. They used fine-textured and very hard wood to make sure that even the most elaborate parts of the design imprinted in relief would last the pressure of hundreds of other printings. Then, master cutters would put the tracing face down on the wooden board. They would then carve away all wood from the surface excluding that indicating the outlines of the drawing of the artists. Since a design imprinted in relief will create a reverse image when put into print, wood cutters reversed tracing to come up with an image similar to the original conception of the artists. A registration mark was carved beyond the perimeter of the composition in the lower right-hand part of the board (Fauntleroy, 1989). The key block would then be sent to printers, who would finish a number of black-and-white impressions, approximately the quantity of colors to be used in the final print. They did not use a mechanical press familiar to European printers because it lacked the pressure needed for wood block impressions; rather the printer applied physical strength to the woodblock, paper, and baren. Then, the proofs would be sent back to the artist, who would inspect the wood block impression and indicate colors to be used. The proofs would be sent back to the woodcutting shop. After the completion of the carving, the key and color blocks would be turned over to the printers. Following the printing of the first color, the paper would be placed on top of a second block inked with a special color; this process would continue throughout the series of color blocks (Fauntleroy, 1989).

The Changing Notions Of Children

The Changing Notions Of Children What is a Child? Initially this may appear to be a simple question: we all have some experience of children and childhood, perhaps through family, friends or your own children, most people have close contact and bonds with children. There is also a wealth of people, in many different professions, who work with children of all ages in many types of settings. Also it is impossible to ignore the simple fact that every adult on this planet was, once, a child themselves. It is clear we all have some experience of children and childhood, and most people will have some very clear notions of what childhood is or what it should be. However once you begin to look a little deeper, it becomes far more complex than one might at first imagine: there are many different factors which effect childhood today. This paper will analyse this question further, looking at definitions of a child and how childhood has changed during the twentieth and twenty first century. Taking into account the effect of the media, consumerism, advertising, adults changing attitudes and child related policy, in order to evaluate how these factors have changed and shaped modern childhood More than sixty years ago, in 1948, the majority of the worlds countrys signed up to the United Nations Declaration of Humans Rights (Lee, 2001). This stated that all human beings were entitled to certain basic rights, which no state could remove from them. Furthermore a little over twenty years ago, in 1989, the United Nations passed a further set of rights specifically for children: the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of the Child (Lee, 2001). One might question the reasons behind this extra convention: the original declaration covered all human beings so why would children need their own special set of rights? (Lee, 2001). This gulf between children and adults within global guidelines reflects the trend of viewing adults and children as fundamentally different types of human (Lee, 2001 pg.5). Traditionally the vast majority of societies have considered adults to be complete, constant and self regulating where as the child is seen to be incomplete, changeable and requiring guidance (Lee, 2001). The sociologist Jens Qvortrup (1994) explained this fissure between human adults and human children eloquently by describing adults as human beings and children as human becomings (cited in Lee, 2001 pg. 5). Now this paper will look at different standpoints, which can be used to view the notion of what children and childhood are The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989 defines a child in the following way: a human being below the age of eighteen years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier (UNCRC, Article 1, 1989). This definition of the child would fall under the category of a legal definition; another legal way to define a child would be by using the age of criminal responsibility. The age that a individual becomes criminally responsible varies greatly from country to country, in England and Wales the age was raised to ten years old in 1963, it had previously been eight (Children and Young Persons Act 1963, section16). However until the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 the law presumed that children under fourteen were doli incapax. Meaning the law regarded them as being incapable of distinguishing the difference between what is right and what is wrong, and therefore could not be convicted of a crime they had committed. Unless the criminal prosecution wer e able to definitively prove that the perpetrator was fully aware that their actions were wrong (Crime and Punishment Act 1998, section 34). The age of criminal responsibility imposed by England and Wales and the even lower age of eight in Scotland, are the lowest within the European Union. The UN Committee on the Rights of the Child has criticised the UK for the low ages imposed: stating article three of the UNCRC which requires that during criminal proceedings the childs best interests must be held in primary consideration (Broadbridge, 2009). Another perspective to look at when defining the child would be to study the concept from a sociological standpoint. What does the term child and childhood mean to society? What is their notion of a child? These are complex questions and the answers will inevitably vary depending on the country and culture one is studying. Michael Wyness (2006) used the playing-child construction to define childhood: this encompasses the notion that childhood equals a time of play, without responsibilities. By using this definition Wyness also offers a definition for adulthood: if childhood can be characterised through a lack of work therefore adulthood can be characterised as being a time for work and responsibility (Wyness, 2006 pg. 9). This would suggest that childhood is a socially constructed phenomena based on the ideas that people within a given society hold. This notion of childhood being a social construction is not a new idea: the French historian Philippe Arià ©s (1960) has also suggested that childhood is a fairly recent construction of society. Arià ©s claimed that until the fifteen century children in Western Europe were considered as miniature adults and therefore believed to have similar mental abilities and personal qualities as adults. Although due to their smaller physical presence they were viewed as physically inferior compared to a fully grown adult (Montgomery, Woodhead, 2002). Philippe Arià ©s work, Centuries of Childhood (first published 1960), was influential in attracting academic consideration towards the study of childhood; however his work has been subject to plentiful criticisms. Such as how he drew his conclusions about medieval society through the means of studying art from the period. Due to the subjective nature of art, studying a society in this way may give an inaccurate picture of how that society viewed a particular subject. A further criticism was the lack of explanation for the change in attitudes towards children (Hill, M, Tisdall, K, 1997). A society which views children as being a completely different type of human being compared to adults, will believe that the child has different needs to be fulfilled than the adults within their society. One example of this can be seen in prosperous areas of the industrialised world, where a wealth of products are available which are exclusively tailored for children. Items such as toys, clothes, cots, food stuffs and medicine are just a snippet of the vast array of child centred paraphernalia adults will encounter in various retail outlets (Montgomery, Woodhead, 2002). As well as these rather necessary commodities, there is also an overwhelming range of products designed for entertaining children. There are books, magazines and television channels; holidays and theme parks; educational software and computer games. These are just some of the things available which cater for children, turning childhood into a lucrative, commercialized business (Montgomery, Woodhead, 2002). The increasing trend in this type of consumerism aimed at children, has further led to a massive growth in advertising aimed at children. Companies now spend huge amounts of money per annum on advertising their brand to children, whereas comparatively twenty years ago the budget for this type of advertising would have been virtually nonexistent (Dunn, Layard, 2009). Research has shown that brand loyalty develops in children from a very early age: studies have shown that even children as young as two will treat a new toy differently depending on whether that child has been exposed to the toy previously through the means of advertising on television. Once they reach the age of three children tend to prefer leading branded products, which are subject to mass media marketing compared to a non branded product which tastes exactly the same (Dunn, Layard, 2009). The purpose of advertising is obviously to make the consumer desire a certain item or brand over any other similar items availab le. However advertising also has the knock on effect of making people, adults and children alike feel that they need more materialistic items than they would otherwise believe. This can leave parents feeling that they need to spend more and more money in order to make their children happy; in a survey conducted by the Childrens Society nine out of ten parents stated that advertising pressurised them into spending more than they could realistically afford (Dunn, Layard, 2009). Consumerism also has negative effects for the child; a major study was conducted in 2004 by Juliet Schor, into the effects of the media and consumerism on children. Her study has found that; if all other aspects of a childs life were equal, high exposure to media would led a child to be more materialistic, having problems relating the their parents and being at higher risk of mental health issues. These risks increase even more for children from disadvantaged backgrounds, who are living with little household i ncome to being with (Dunn, Layard, 2009). Childrens experience of childhood in the twenty first century will differ vastly from even their own parents experiences just one generation before them. This is partly due to the change in childrens leisure activities which in the last decade have shifted to included much less physically active pursuits (Dunn, Layard, 2009). Studies have shown that children are spending less time than ever before pursuing physical activities. Physically inactive pursuits such as: television, video gaming and the internet becoming ever more popular (Dunn, Layard, 2009 pg.54). This bloom in new technologies has brought a wealth of knowledge and entertainment to our finger tips. However it has also been linked with increases in three dangers: encouraging the discourse that wealth and beauty equals happiness; encouraging aggressive models of relationships and that it encourages less physical activity and unhealthy lifestyles (Dunn, Layard, 2009). The change in adults attitudes towards what pursuits can be considered safe for children is one reason for this decline in the amounts of physical, outdoor activity undertaken by modern children. Through the media, vast amounts of information regarding child murder cases are made available and easily accessible to the general public, resulting in these cases being more prominent in peoples thoughts (Dunn, Layard, 2009). This leads people to believe that the number of children being murdered, especially being murdered by strangers has been steadily increasing over time; however this isnt the case. Home office statistics show that the risk of children being murdered by a stranger are very minimal, averaging approximately eleven per year shows that for the vast majority of adults their fears for childrens safety are unfounded (Dunn, Layard, 2009). In fact a child is at much greater risk within their own home. The NSPCC believe that for each generation more than one thousand children w ill be killed before adulthood, most at the hands of a violent parent or carer (Cunningham, 2006 p.235). These high profile cases in the media have also led to childrens rights becoming more prominent within societies and indeed also the Governments thoughts. There has been a deluge of child related policy passed through the UK government, reflecting how attitudes towards children have changed; children are being viewed as separate beings that have individual needs and are in need of protection. Just one of these policies is the Children Act 2004; this Act was developed and implemented following the findings of Lord Lamings 2003 inquiry into the tragic death of Victoria Climbià ©, who died in 2002 (Duffy, Pugh, 2010). In response to the Laming report the government published the Green Paper Every Child Matters (DfES, 2003); the prime minister at the time, Tony Blair, described it as the most significant development for children for more than thirty years (Duffy, Pugh, 2010 p.9). The overall outcomes that the Green Paper and the consequent Children Act of 2004 hoped to achieve was to improve the expectations of all children, narrowing the fissure between high and low achievers via the means of reconfiguring the services available for children and families (Duffy, Pugh, 2010). The Act also set out five outcomes which all children, right from birth until the age of eighteen, should be able to achieve. These five outcomes are: to be healthy, to be protected from all forms of harm, to enjoy and achieve in their lives, to be able to contribute positively within their society and finally the ability to achieve economic wellbeing (Anning, Ball, 2008). Whilst the intention of this Act appear to hold a childs well being as paramount in its agenda, some professionals have voiced concerns over potential negative side effects, it might present for the most vulnerable of children (Womack, 2006). Under the Act a massive database containing information on all twelve million children living in England and Wales was created (Womack, 2006). Experts in the field of safeguarding children have suggested that the sheer amount of data recorded in this database, will make it easier for genuine cases of child neglect and abuse to slip through the net. Under a system that detects threat to a child, in even in the most trivial of matters, may mean a child under serious threat of harm will not be identified (Womack, 2006). When services are already looking for the needle in a haystack is it really useful to make the haystack even bigger? (Womack, 2006) Having looked at the legal and sociological perspectives of childhood and having taken into account the influence of the media, consumerism, advertising, adult attitudes and child related policy. The focus of this paper will now turn to look at the feelings and ideas that children have about what it means to be a child Wendy Stainton-Rogers conducted interviews with children from around the world as part of research for a book about childhood (Stainton-Rogers cited in Montgomery, Woodhead, 2002). In these interviews children were asked, what did being a child mean to them? One child aged eight, when interviewed and asked this question replied: Im a child because, if I was a baby I would still be small. And, and now Im a child because Im not a baby any more. Because Im, because Im grown up. And a baby is sort of like, is like almost one year old, two years old or three years old (Stainton Rogers cited in Montgomery, Woodhead, 2002 pg.7). This statement appears to show that the child questioned was somewhat confused as to exactly what a child is. They had some clear thoughts about what made them a child, but appeared hesitant in being able to justify their thoughts. Another child stated that they felt that they would become an adult after their bat mitzvah, saying that after that they would feel mo re grown up (Stainton Rogers cited in Montgomery, Woodhead, 2002 pg.7). This suggests that a childs religion will impact their feelings of what it means to be a child: that childhood ends with certain religious rites of passage. One child felt that a child was somebody who was still learning and being moulded into an adult (Stainton Rogers cited in Montgomery, Woodhead, 2003 pg.7). The answer that this child gave would fit in very well with a socially constructed model of childhood: that the purpose of childhood is for the adult members of a society to shape and mould children into acceptable members of society for the future. From completing the research for this paper, it has become clear that there is no single, universal answer to the question what is a child. Both childrens and adults views on childhood and what it means to be a child will vary vastly depending on culture, religion and the country where they live. To state that a child is a human being under the age of eighteen simply just isnt enough. Children are all individuals and no two will ever be the same just as no two adults ever will be. In order for children to be happy and grow into well rounded, balanced adults their individual needs have to be met and to be protected from serious harm. It is wrong for adult society to simply believe that a child is just an unfinished lump of clay in need of sculpting in order to become the adults society expects for the future. Children should be seen as important members within all societies, whom have the ability to positively contribute to the society in which they live. .

Geotechnical Engineering Properties of Soils Tests

Geotechnical Engineering Properties of Soils Tests Jump to: Advantages and Disadvantages of SPT Standard Penetration Test Advantages and Disadvantages of Cone Penetration Test Advantages and Disadvantages of Shear Vane Test Advantages and Disadvantages of Wash Boring Advantages and Disadvantages of Percussion Rig Boring Advantages and Disadvantages of Rotary Auger Boring During the SPT, it was possible to take disturbed and undisturbed samples using split barrel-sampler which were used for further laboratory tests. The in situ penetration test provides a soil sample for identification purposes and for the laboratory tests that allow the use of disturbed samples. The method of sampling soil consists of driving a split-barrel sampler to obtain a representative, disturbed sample and to simultaneously obtain a measure of the resistance of the subsoil to the penetration of a standard sampler. The test is conducted inside a borehole. A split spoon sampler is attached to the bottom of a core barrel and lowered into position at the bottom of the borehole. The sampler is driven into the ground by a drop hammer weighing 68 kg falling through a height of 76 cm. The number of hammer blows is counted. The number required to drive the sampler three successive 150mm increments is recorded. The first increment (0-150mm) is not included in the N value as it is assume d that the top of the test area has been disturbed by the drilling process. The SPT N is the number of blows required to achieve penetration from 150-450mm. The hammer weight, drop height, spoon diameter, rope diameter etc. are standard dimensions. After the test, the sample remaining inside the split spoon is preserved in an airtight container for inspection and description. Advantages and Disadvantages of SPT Standard Penetration Test ADVANTAGES Relatively quick and simple to perform Able to penetrate dense layers, gravel, and fill Equipment and expertise for the test is widely available In addition to overburden pressure and relative density the SPT N-value is also a function of soil type, particle size, and age and stress history of the deposit Provides a representative soil sample Provides useful index of relative strength and compressibility of the soil DISADVANTAGES The SPT does not typically provide continuous data, therefore important data such as weak seams may be missed Somewhat slower than other sample methods due to sample retrieval The basic problems to consider are change in effective stress at the bottom of the borehole, dynamic energy reaching the sampler, sampler design, interval of impact, penetration resistance count. Samples that are obtained from the SPT are disturbed. Cone Penetration Test (CPT) What is CPT? Cone Penetration Tests are conducted to obtain the cone resistance, the side friction and, if there is a piezocone, the pore pressure. The soil type can be determined by analysing these result the values can also be used in the design of shallow foundations through the estimation of stiffness and shear strength of cohesive soils. The cone penetration test (CPT) is a method used to determine the geotechnical engineering properties of soils and delineating soil stratigraphy. It was initially developed in the 1950s at the Dutch Laboratory for Soil Mechanics in Delft to investigate soft soils. Based on this history it has also been called the Dutch cone test. Today, the CPT is one of the most used and accepted in soil methods for soil investigation worldwide. Process CPT is static penetration test in which the device is pushed rather than then driven by blows into the soil. The CPT consist of cone which been attached to a rod that been protected by an outer sleeve. A 60o cone with face area 10cm2 and 150cm2 of friction sleeve is hydraulically pushed into the ground at a constant speed ranging from 1.5 to 2.5 cm/s about 80mm deep. The force required maintaining this penetration rate, and the shear force acting on the friction sleeve is recorded. The friction ratio gives an indication of the soil type. The CPT Soil Classification will be based on ratio of tip and sleeve resistance. The tip resistance will be high in sand and low in clays while the sleeve friction will be low in sands and high in clays. Advantages and Disadvantages of Cone Penetration Test ADVANTAGE Continuous data Reliable, repeatable test results DISADVANTAGES Inability to penetrate through gravels and cobbles Elimination of operator error Less populated database than SPT due to the new technology Lack of sampling SHEAR VANE TEST What is Shear Vane Test? The vane shear test is an in-situ geotechnical testing methods used to estimate the undrained shear strength of fully saturated clays without disturbance. The test is relatively simple, quick, and provides a cost-effective way of estimating the soil shear strength; therefore, it is widely used in geotechnical investigations. Under special condition, the vane shear test can be also carried out in the laboratory on undisturbed soil specimens however the use of the vane shear test in in-situ testing is much more common. Process The vane shear test is an in-situ geotechnical testing methods used to estimate the undrained shear strength of fully saturated clays without disturbance. The results of the test are not reliable if clay contains silt or sand. The vane shear test apparatus consists of a four-blade stainless steel vane attached to a steel rod that will be pushed into the ground. For a weak soils which has Cu less than 50 kPa, the size of the blade is 75mm wide x 150 mm long while for the slightly strong soils which has Cu between 50 kPa to 100 kPa, 50 x 100 mm blade should be use. The height of vane is usually twice its overall widths and is often equal to 10 cm or 15 cm. The test can be conducted either from the ground surface or from the bottom of a borehole or a test pit. If conducted from the bottom of a borehole, the test area should be should be at the depth of least three times the borehole diameter lower that the borehole bottom in order to avoid the borehole disturbance effects. The test starts by pushing the vane and the rod vertically into the soft soil. The vane is then rotated at a slow rate of 6 ° to 12 ° per minute. The torque is measured at regular time intervals and the test continues until a maximum torque is reached and the vane rotates rapidly for several revolutions. At this time, the soil fails in shear on a cylindrical surface around the vane. The rotation is usually continued after shearing and the torque is measured to estimate the remoulded shear strength. The undrained shear strength of the saturated soil is proportional to the applied torque and the dimensions of the vane. Advantages and Disadvantages of Shear Vane Test ADVANTAGES Rapid and economical test Reproducible results in homogeneous soils Inexpensive method for measuring clay sensitivity   DISADVANTAGES Limited to soft to stiff cohesive soils Field vane shear strength must be corrected Results can be affected by anisotropic soils, sand lenses, shells, and seams BORING WASH BORING What is Wash Boring? A popular method to drill larger size holes in soft formations. Casing with a casing crown attached is rotated into the ground and water is used to flush out the drilled formation. It is one of a boring system by which material loosened by a bit is borne to the surface in the annular space between the bit and casing by water forced down through the pipe bearing the bit Process For test boring over 3 meter in depth, this method can be conveniently used. In this method a hollow steel pipe known as casing pipe or drive pipe is driven into the ground for a certain depth. Then a pipe usually known as water jet pipe or wash pipe, which is shorter in diameter, is lowered into the casing pipe. At its upper end, the wash pipe is connected to water supply system while the lower end of the pipe is contracted so as to produce jet action. Water under considerable pressure is forced down the wash pipe. The hydraulic pressure displaces the material immediately below the pipe and the slurry thus formed is forced up through the annular space between the two pipes. The slurry is collected and samples of material encountered are obtained by settlement. In this process the particles of finer material like clay, loam etc. do not settle easily and the larger and heavy particles of the soil may not be brought up at all. Moreover, the exact position of a material in the formation cannot be easily be located. However the change of stratification can be guessed from the rate of progress of driving the casing pipe as well as the color of slurry flowing out. Yet the results obtained by wash boring process give fairly good information about the nature of the sub-soil strata. This method can be adopted in soft to stiff cohesive soils and fine sand. Advantages and Disadvantages of Wash Boring ADVANTAGES Can be used in difficult terrain Low equipment cost Used in uncased holes DISADVANTAGES Depth limited to about 30m Difficulty in obtaining accurate location of groundwater level. Undisturbed soil samples cannot be obtained. PERCUSSION RIG BORING What is Percussion Rig Boring? Percussion Rug Boring is widely used in UK. Percussion drilling method of advancing a boring is of common use in drilling water wells. This method consists of breaking up of the sub-strata by repeated blows from a bit or chisel. This type of boring can make a borehole up to 150 mm 300 mm diameter and depth up to 50 60 m. However this method is not recommended for loose sand or clayey soils. Process This method consists of breaking up of the sub-strata by repeated blows from a bit or chisel. Percussion methods start by raise up the tool assembly by the winch to 1 m above the bottom of the hole. It allows the tool assembly to fall under its own weight to drive the cutting tools into the soil. The material thus pulverized is converted into slurry by pouring water in the bore. At intervals the slurry is bailed out of the hole and dried for examination. The slurry will be removed by bailers or pump. After that, tool will be raise to surface when the cutting tools are full of soil to obtain undisturbed sample. This method can be adopted in rocks and soils having boulders. In general, a machine used to drill holes is called a drill rig generally power driven, but may be hand driven. A winch is provided to raise and lower the drilling tools into the hole. Advantages and Disadvantages of Percussion Rig Boring ADVANTAGES Simple to operate and maintain Suitable for a wide variety of rocks Operation is possible above and below the water-table It is possible to drill to considerable depths DISADVANTAGES Slow, compared with other methods Equipment can be heavy Problems can occur with unstable rock formations Water is needed for dry holes to help remove cuttings ROTARY AUGER BORING What is Rotary Auger Boring? A drill bit is pushed by weight of drilling equipment and rotated by a motor. This drilling method with mud pump for flushing can be direct circulation and reverse circulation, with tricone bit and drag bit Nevertheless, the torque is relatively critical for this drilling method. It is widely used in soft to medium hard ground conditions. This type of boring machine can be also use for piling works. It can bore the hole up to depth of 50 m and diameter of 300 mm to 2 m. Process When rocks or hard pans are to be penetrated for examination, core drilling is done to get undisturbed samples of the formation. In this process a hole is made by rotating a hollow steel tube having a cutting bit at its base. The cutting bit makes an annular cut in the strata and leaves a cylindrical core of the material in the hollow tube. Two types of cutting bits are generally used, namely, diamond bit and shot bit. Diamond bit consists of industrial diamonds set in the face of the bit and in shot bit, chilled shot is used as an abrasive to cut the hard pan. When core samples of small diameter are needed, diamond bit is preferred. There are two main type of rotary auger boring which are: Bucket Auger Consists of an open- top metal cylinder with cutter mounted on a baseplate as the soil is cut, it passes into the bucket, which is then raised and emptied at intervals. Can be used in frim soil. Not suitable for cohesionless soil below water table. Flight Auger Short flight Simple flight Continuous flight Advantages and Disadvantages of Rotary Auger Boring ADVANTAGE Quick Drill through any type of soil or rock Can drill to depths of 50 m Undisturbed samples can be easily recovered DISADVANTAGE Expensive equipment Terrain must be accessible to motorized vehicle Difficulty in obtaining location of groundwater level Additional time required for set-up and clean-up

Devil In The White City Essay -- Literary Analysis, Erik Larson

Erik Larson’s book Devil in the White City is full of magic and madness that has shaped the society of the late 19th century that is specific to in Chicago. The issues that have been handled through this time frame that are addressed in this book is that how Chicago was known to be the black city at first, and how the city hoped that hosting the World’s fair would increase their reputation. Secondly, the magic of a man named Daniel Burnham that did put the plans of the world fair in Chicago into life and the obstacles that he had overcame. Next, once the world fair was complete, it has made Chicago â€Å"The White city,† by its dazzling designs and attractions that made it memorable. Then, the madness of H.H. Holmes and how his evil deeds has seemed to undermine the world fair and the things that are going on within it with his murders and treachery that does grip Chicago once his evil deeds have been found out. Finally, the events that happened in the world fai r that relate to the issues that occur in the late ninetieth century within the United States. The city of Chicago was in a desolate condition before it hosted the World Fair. The city of Chicago was nicknamed â€Å"The Black City,† (P.11) before they had hosted the 1893 fair that had brought the city into life. Chicago was a city that was ridden with much crime and death to the point where young women could have been tempted to fall under the dangers of this city. Death was more commonplace then Chicago then other cities at that time because of murders that were so frequent in this city. The author does point out that â€Å"You can step from a curb and be killed by the Chicago Limited† (P.12). That fact even struck fear into the people who were visiting Chicago just to have fun or eve... ...gic of Chicago, but also the darkening madness of H.H. Holmes. This analysis of the book covers the city of Chicago being â€Å"the Black City,† before it hosted the World’s fair. Secondly, the glorious magic of Daniel Burnham did make this fair possible who all of his men that he worked with. Next, the city of Chicago when the fair was going on was a grand sight that people around the world would remember in history. Also, the unfortunate sight of the crimes and evil intention of H.H. Holmes had committed, that does put a black eye upon the fair. Finally, The Fair and how it has related to the historical trends of nineteenth century America. The Devil in the White City is an important novel that does tell of a great historical fair and a crime that has happened within the city of Chicago, the events there during that time period would be an important part in history.

The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn :: essays research papers

Reasons Huck Finn isn't racist The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is not a racist novel. This novel has been subject to much controversy about whether or not the book is racist. Whilst many believe the novel to be non racist, there a few people out there who believe it is. This is just not true. This essay will show you why this novel is not racist.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Huck Finn is the main character in this novel; he is an uneducated, uncivilized, backwoods hick. Huck uses the word ‘nigger’ many times throughout this story. What many people have not come to realize is that at this point in time the word nigger was no more offensive then calling another man ‘white’. All slaves in that time were referred to as ‘niggers’. At this point in time that word is very hurtful to the black community when used offensively. Huck using the word only reinforces the idea that he was in fact uneducated and it shows what kind a vocabulary to have expected from a young southern boy. In fact if that word wasn’t used in the novel it wouldn’t be as realistic as it is.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The costar of this novel is a runaway slave named Jim. Jim is a caring friend, a devoted husband, and a loving father. Many people believe that Jim is portrayed as silly and uneducated. Those people have failed to realize that this book is written through a child’s point of view. Before Huck gets to know Jim for the man he really is this is how Huck perceives him. Although Jim is perceived as stupid it’s because he is. Jim has probably lived his life as a slave and has a slaves’ education. This book wasn’t written to show how stupid the slaves were, although it somewhat did, but rather to express the situation of slaves being uneducated at the time.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The third reason why this is not a racist piece of literature is it shows that there in no racial boundrys in love and compassion for another human being. It shows the development of Huck and Jims’ father and son type of relationship. This novel concretely shows that relationships of any sort are not bound by race. The novel also shows how one’s ideals can change in spite of what you have been taught. Huck deciding that he would go to hell to help Jim escape to freedom is probably the most non racist part of the whole novel, and it is what the book is built upon.

Building a Networked Organization Essay

MWH is a global engineering services firm considered to be a leader in water, hydropower and environmental remediation. It was trying to turn the geographically organized department into one organized by function and the reorganization will depend on effective collaboration. The existing relationships are providing through ONA analysis, a method for mapping relationships among people in a group. This case looks into the old structure under which departments are fragmented by geography and constrained by hierarchy and other gaps in connectivity. Challenges are listed for discussion and recommendations are provided for steps to be taken to align the department’s network with MWH’s business objectives.An IT department organized by geography instead of functionality had been acceptable when MWH was smaller, which is now impossible for the IT department to deliver sophisticated, standardized solutions. The information-seeking relationships that existed at the birth of iNet were based on shared geography, not on shared functional areas. . There was only limited collaboration across the IT business centers and this fragmentation results in internal customers experiencing varying levels of service, functionality and costs for technical solutions and applications. Even more crucial was service to external customers. 3. The lack of standardization. Employees had no strong process base to guide them and they got work done by turning to other people for help. The leaders of the various IT groups met two or three times a year in an effort to drive standard approaches for the company, but the groups continued to operate independently, each serving its own master and employing its own measures and processes. 4. There was limited collaboration between some locations for MWH, this imposed a big challenge for the iNet project because some are planned to be built into important serve locations globally. Some groups were not providing optimal solutions to customers because they did not leverage each other’s expertise, therefore higher than industry average IT cost lead to lower competiveness of service quality and cost. 6. There was hierarchy exist. Overall, there was a relatively high level of collaboration among the most senior iNet employees, but less connectivity was evident among those at lower levels. 7. The network size varied a lot from 1~2 to more than 25 overloaded by some people which reveals a serious asymmetry of the relationship distribution. 8. A lot of relationships existed within immediate team only; few had any ties outside of MWH. 9. The serendipitous interactions could preclude effective information-seeking. RECOMMENDATION All the issues addressed above occurred from inefficient organization structure and lack of collaboration, which can be solved by carefully designing and building a networked organization. Following are the reconditions for successfully carrying out iNet project to: 1) Increase responsiveness and adaptiveness through real time operation. 2) Maximize the knowledge potential of the enterprise by leveraging expertise companywide and share information. ) Minimize disruption and duplication, which promises delivering optimal solution and with lower cost. Recommendations are from two aspects: restructure company departments and better managing networked relationships throughout the whole organization. Organization Restructure 1. Fluid boundaries MWH need to breakdown the geography base departments and carr y out a function integration to increase its capacity to respond quickly and effectively to market forces, therefore improve the quality of conformance to customer requirements and reduce costs. Centralization of like tasks or functions and management of geographically separated units will enhance a more network-oriented improvement. From exhibit we can see that the new organization structure has fewer departments and levels, all the new departments are no longer designed according to geography but functions. However, having a revised organization structure graph is far from enough. To make it work, the manager needs to make sure there is no longer geography boundaries exit. New operational structure need to push functions out or pull them back in different departments as they suit company’s strategy. Large-scale integration of functions and systems required to fully manage the operation and service process. 2. Information infrastructure Executives must use powerful technology to allow information to flow seamlessly across, out of, and into the company. Well-planned technical architecture need to be set up to allow information to move freely. MWH need to build up an integrated and overarching architecture for the entire company, not just a patchwork of current system linking to individual’s solutions. A through analyze of existing technology support will be needed to balance with the infrastructure requirements of the iNet project. . New management structure Advance IT systems will help to remove some mid-level management positions and creates a flatter structure, therefore, old control and planning style will be revised. Senior managers should be able to see into a larger group of employees with technology, while push down information simultaneously. Senior management shou ld be linked with each other, therefore be able to draw on the entire management team for input when it comes to important decision process. The entire control and planning process will then become an on-line, real-time, team-based, coordinated process. This change will create deeper understanding of issue facing each senior manager and activities need to be adopted, thus more proper coordination at the senior management level. It also provides opportunities to move decisions either up or down in the organization. Team decisions making will be easier and faster, as geographically separated departments can concurrently access and assess data and communicate at the very first time. 4. Expertise group To better utilize the knowledge of experts in the organization, expertise group need to be carefully designed and make sure they can provide help and share information easily. Every knowledge worker should belong to at least two separate teams, which helps the organization achieve cross functional co-operation as well as helping individuals gain a broader perspective. Social relationship Management 1. Management of interdependence Under iNet, there is going to be considerable interdependence among all management actives. Instead of taking full control over the immediate lower level employees in the department, managers need to cope with unclear lines of authority and decision makings which rely more on interactions from other teams and departments. The managers need to share resources more freely and perate in a more diffuse responsibility and accountability environment. 2. Management of role complexity In old MWH organization structure, ONA analysis revealed the existence of highly hierarchy: senior and highly relied people had full control over the resources while lower level and highly peripheral employees with limited access to resources and authority. Within the networked organization, as the complexity of shared work, decision making, expertise and accountability increase, employees need to be involved in more complex network recourses to gain stronger skill to adapt the new responsibilities. The manager’s challenge here is to give employees confidence and resources to gain these skills including tools/techniques necessary, conceptualization, experience and interpersonal skills necessary to work efficiently with other. This can be achieved from assigning expertise groups to help and trainings. 3. Management of information seeking In the old structure, many employees seek information from their immediate teams and many others tend obtain information mainly from serendipitous interactions. The social capital was tight, informal relationships was unseen among employees, while the new networked form company functions efficiently with its flexible relationships. On one hand, managers need to improve the information seeking process for more efficient result. Formal relationships are best cemented by having agreed written process and common members in all teams. Higher trust and openness rather than higher formality environment need to be created for critical linkages. Frequent communication throughout the network must be encouraged; small groups developing its own communication dose not foster the net work spirit. On the other hand, besides of formal relationships, employees should be encouraged to maintain their personal and professional networks, even beyond the identifiable needs of the current team. 4. Management ofculture Another big challenge the manger need to work on to foster iNet is creating trust culture in the organization. Transforming from the traditional structure, trust is one of the most important forces. Employees must have a clear understanding of task intent, information, and trust in the people, resources and technologies available. As a global company, establishing a trust-based culture is more difficult for MWH because of the diversified locations and mixed nationalities, there is no control over individual’s location, training, and experience. The relationship between people is fluid. Moving information in the networked organization and more complex roles demands a higher level of trust and dependence between managers and employees. This trust-based culture can be grown from joint training, team work and other continued integrations and reinforcements.

The Educational System Trying

Is the guarantee of safety of others a compelling reason in which to form and maintain policies that make all school aged athletes or anyone who is involved in school based extra curricular activities subject to a mandatory drug screening or does this become a violation of constitutional rights? Can it be said that those in a choir or band recital pose just as much threat as those in vigorous sports and if so what kind of dangers do these people emit?Just how far can schools go in their policies befire they become shut down indefinitely when it comes to making policies â€Å"For the greater good? † It all started in 1995 when an Oregon school won their case in which they chose to make all athletes be drug tested. In an outcry the students filed suit and in the end it was the school who prevailed. Since then more and more schools are adopting or have done so or at least trying to adopt that same policy, many have succeeded with little to no issue while others have acted as the Acton family did in the Oregon case.Schools claim that in having a drug testing policy for athletes that this will help allay future endangerments and promote a healthier stance not only with the athletes but with the other students as well. Furthermore, the Oreogn school won their case for only those who are involved in athletics, not those that are involved in other extra curricular activities such as band or choir. The case in Oregon made in to the Supreme Court contenind violations of the fourth and fourteenth constitutional amendments.The Fourth amendment protects us against unreasonable search and seizures and that we are protected within our homes as well as the schools in which we attend and any other facility. The word reasonable has come into play through the course of arguments when arguing that forcing drug testing with no reasonable grounds went against this. With each case being different, the definition of reasonable also expands.The captain of a football team may be using as well as distributing and in this would lie reasonable cause for drug testing but the argument, as of 2000-2002, from yet another group challenging a school’s policy, is why should drug testing be enforced upon students when there is no reason visible per that student or group of students? But the Fourteenth amendment has also been cited; no person shall be deprived of life, liberty or property without due process of law and in forcing students to submit to drug testing simply because there is a policy allegedly violates this as suddenly they have been deprived of due process.So once again, another group of students have stepped forward, some outraged at the fact of a drug policy being implemented, not only for those who are athletes or in extra curricular activities but for all students, regardless of any exhibits or lack thereof of drug use and regardless of any known or unknown associations with any person who is thought to be a user. Simply, the case of Earls v. B oard of Education of Tecumseh Public School District claimed a definitive violation against them stoutly claiming the fourth amendment.In favbor of the Earls case, the Drug Policy Alliance Network filed a brief regarding this case, also contesting mandatory drug screens for all students. It has been claimed that sports actually is haven for drug free children and thus a protection. According to experts from the â€Å"American Academy of Pediatrics, the National Education Association, the American Public Health Association, the National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence and several other prominent national organizations that thay all disagree with suspicionless drug testing of high school students engaged in extracurricular activities. † (http://www. drugpolicy.org/law/drugtesting/students/ 3rd paragraph). So with all of this, 10th Circuit held that the drug testing policy at issue violated students' Fourth Amendment rights but in 2002 the Supreme Court reversed that d ecision and upheld that school’s policy and then the ACLU took notice of this case and along with other similar cases, is challenging these violations of the violated constitutional rights. While the ACLU and circuit courts strike down the policies of schools with regards to their drug testing policies, the Supreme Court and the National Drug Control agency are for it and each side is pushing forward to be heard.Now the landmark of all of this is the fact that the 10th Circuit Court ruled against the Board of Education, the Supreme Court then came along and ruled back in favor of the Board of Education and in the same month the Supreme Court ruled against the Board of Education. A Supreme Court ruling against each other in the same month, unheard of. Justice Ginsburg in a subtle fashion held the school responsible more for their lack of proper concern and reasons in which to hold every child in punishment form for something that only some have done.He claimed this disregard a s if the tutelary responsibility was being taken a lot to far. To this day, this last decision has not been reversed. Any school intervention or other law enforcement intervention upon a student’s rights while at school must closely abide by the Vernonia, Oregon ruling of reasonableness. With these different factions going back and forth over what is quickly becoming an age old argument both sides have valid points but in the end it needs to be realized that drug testing students just because they can has proven to be of little to no use, not to mention a definite violation of legalities.Expert opinions of kids being driven away from sports due to this policy holds high validity. Where a child might be currently using, sports may also be the place that gets the child to stop using. In the end, regardless of testing, children will use and always have access to drugs should this be their decision and no school policy or court opinion will deter that. It hasn’t in hundred s of years and it isn’t about to start now. WORKS CITED BOARD OF ED. OF INDEPENDENT SCHOOL DIST. NO. 92 OF POTTAWATOMIE CTY. V. EARLS (01-332) 536 U. S.822 (2002) 242 F. 3d 1264, reversed. June 27, 2002 . http://www. law. cornell. edu/supct/html/01-332. ZD1. html NPR. Nina Totenburg. The Supreme Court and ‘Brown v. Board of Ed. Feb 6, 2009 http://www. npr. org/templates/story/story. php? storyId=1537409 Drug Testing Students. Drug Policy Alliance Network. 2009. Http://www. drugpolicy. org/law/drugtesting/students/ Reasonline. com. The Supreme Court's ruling on school drug testing will hurt public schools more than the one on vouchers. July 1, 2002. http://www. reason. com/news/show/32704.